General Information about the Country
Population, Capital, Major Languages, Religion, and Geographical Location
Kazakhstan, the largest landlocked country in the world, has a population of approximately 20 million people. The capital is Astana (formerly Nur-Sultan), while the largest city is Almaty. The official languages are Kazakh, a member of the Turkic language family, and Russian, which is widely used in government, business, and everyday communication.
The dominant religion in Kazakhstan is Islam, primarily Sunni, although a significant portion of the population adheres to Christianity, mainly Russian Orthodoxy.
Kazakhstan shares borders with Russia to the north, China to the east, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan to the south, and is bordered by the Caspian Sea to the west. The country’s territory includes vast steppes, deserts, mountains, and part of the Caspian Sea coastline. The Aral Sea is partially located within Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. The climate is continental, characterized by cold winters and hot summers, particularly in the central regions.
Political System
System of Governance, Key Political Parties, and Leaders
Kazakhstan operates as a presidential republic, historically exhibiting features of a super-presidential system.
Despite its multi-party system, political competition in the country is limited, with most parties supporting the existing governmental structure. The main political parties include:
1. Amanat (formerly Nur Otan) – The ruling party, long associated with Kazakhstan’s first president, Nursultan Nazarbayev. It advocates for economic modernization, political stability, and gradual reforms.
2. Democratic Party “Ak Zhol” – A centrist party promoting business interests. While positioning itself as moderate opposition, it largely supports the government on key issues.
3. People’s Party of Kazakhstan – A left-leaning party focused on social welfare, economic equality, and state control over key economic sectors. It traces its roots to the Communist Party of Kazakhstan.
4. People’s Democratic Patriotic Party “Auyl” – A party emphasizing rural development, agricultural reform, and the preservation of Kazakh traditions.
In 2019, Kazakhstan experienced its first transition of power since independence. Kassym-Jomart Tokayev assumed the presidency, succeeding Nursultan Nazarbayev, who had ruled the country for nearly three decades. Although Nazarbayev stepped down as president, he retained considerable influence as Chairman of the Security Council and Leader of the Nation, continuing to shape the country’s policies.
Under Tokayev’s leadership, measures for limited political reforms were introduced, including steps toward decentralizing presidential power and encouraging greater political participation. However, these reforms remain gradual and have not fundamentally altered the authoritarian nature of the political system. Opposition parties remain marginalized, and the ruling elite maintains significant control over political processes.
Recent Elections and Their Outcomes
On March 19, 2023, parliamentary elections were held in Kazakhstan, which, according to observers, fell short of democratic standards. The OSCE/ODIHR election observation mission noted that while legislative changes aimed to increase competition, “significant procedural irregularities were observed.” Opposition groups continued to face significant obstacles to registration.
The majority of parliamentary seats were secured by representatives of three pro-government parties.
“Our observers consistently noted discrepancies between voter turnout and officially announced results,” stated Reinhold Lopatka, head of the OSCE PA delegation, during a press conference in Astana.
The International Election Observation Mission (IEOM) negatively assessed the vote counting process in 58 out of 128 observed polling stations, citing significant procedural errors, violations, and a disregard for data reconciliation procedures.
State of Democracy
Freedom of Speech and Media Independence
In early 2023, Kazakhstan witnessed an increase in incidents of harassment, threats, and attacks against journalists. In January and February, media offices were attacked, and journalists’ cars and homes were set on fire. On January 20, the European Union, the United States, and the United Kingdom expressed concerns and called for accountability. The authorities initiated investigations.
On July 3, 2023, a court in the Turkestan region sentenced journalist Amangeldy Batyrbayev to 20 days of administrative detention on charges of defamation for a Facebook post. On February 3, a court in Astana sentenced blogger Makhambet Abzhan to nine years in prison on charges of “disseminating false information” and “extortion” following a closed trial.
In late July, Kazakhstan adopted a new media law introducing penalties for the “dissemination of false information,” creating further risks to freedom of expression.
Freedom of Assembly and Association
The right to peaceful assembly remains highly restricted and tightly controlled. Attempts to organize peaceful protests often result in detentions, fines, or short-term arrests.
Legislation requires prior authorization even for single-person pickets, and organizing or participating in “unauthorized” rallies can lead to 15 days of detention. For example, 13 activists supporting the unregistered party “Alga, Kazakhstan!” were arrested for participating in previous rallies before a planned protest on Republic Day, October 25.
Some protesters face harsher criminal penalties. In July 2023, five participants in peaceful protests from January 2022 were sentenced to up to eight years in prison following unfair trials accompanied by reports of torture and witness intimidation.
Peaceful assemblies are permitted only in designated locations, usually three to four per city, significantly limiting opportunities for public expression.
Workers’ Rights and Trade Unions
Trade unions face severe restrictions. Workers’ rights to organize and strike are heavily regulated. Independent trade unions are often denied registration, and labor movement leaders frequently face harassment or imprisonment. Strikes in key industries, such as oil and gas, are met with force and mass detentions.
A significant lack of accountability for torture and ill-treatment persists. In January 2023, human rights organizations documented numerous cases of torture and abuse against detainees following the January 2022 events. Methods included beatings, burns, electric shocks, and sexual violence, including rape and threats of rape, targeting both male and female detainees. Thirteen cases of torture and ill-treatment of children were also recorded. As of late 2023, 23 police officers were convicted of torture in trials related to these events; however, dozens of other investigations were closed due to alleged “insufficient evidence.”
On April 10, 2023, an Almaty court convicted Zhanbolat Mamay, leader of the unregistered Democratic Party of Kazakhstan, on charges of organizing mass riots, insulting law enforcement officers, and disseminating knowingly false information. He received a suspended six-year prison sentence, which was upheld on appeal in June.
Kazakh authorities continue to target peaceful political opposition activists with criminal charges under Article 405 of the Criminal Code for alleged membership in banned “extremist” groups. In May, police arrested Marat Zhylanbaev, the leader of the unregistered opposition group “Alga, Kazakhstan,” on charges of participating in and financing extremist activities. This followed a 20-day administrative arrest he served for organizing an unauthorized protest in Astana.
Two years after large-scale protests shook the country, the authorities have yet to ensure accountability for the excessive use of force against demonstrators, arbitrary arrests, imprisonment, ill-treatment, and torture of detainees.
Violent attacks on journalists have increased since early 2023, and authorities continue to use vague criminal charges to suppress government critics and activists. Among those targeted are Marat Zhylanbaev, sentenced to seven years in prison in November, and Zhanbolat Mamay, given a suspended six-year sentence in April and banned from political activities.
Human Rights
Key Human Rights Violations
Ethnic minorities, such as Uyghurs, Dungans, and others, face systemic discrimination and unequal access to political and social rights. Religious freedoms are also restricted, particularly for minority religious groups, which are subject to strict regulations and government surveillance. Religious organizations must register with the state, and those deemed “non-traditional” often face harassment and severe limitations on their activities.
Civil and Political Rights
Religious groups face mandatory registration requirements and significant restrictions on the dissemination and sale of religious literature. International watchdogs reported that between January and June 2023, 10 individuals and organizations were prosecuted for “maintaining and using places for prayer without state permission,” and at least nine Muslims were serving prison sentences for social media posts on Islam.
Reports by International Organizations
In June 2023, the United Nations Committee Against Torture (CAT) expressed concern over the “many consistent reports” of torture and called on Kazakhstan to ensure accountability for “all acts of torture and ill-treatment, including excessive use of force.”
During his March 2023 visit to Kazakhstan, UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Volker Turk called for a comprehensive review of the January 2022 events, emphasizing the need for justice, reparations, and truth for all victims. He also urged Kazakhstan to explicitly criminalize domestic violence and to strengthen protections for journalists and freedom of expression.
Reforms and Prospects
Ongoing or Planned Reforms in Democracy and Human Rights
In April 2023, Kazakhstan enhanced legal protections for women by eliminating the possibility of reconciliation after repeated acts of domestic abuse—a provision that previously allowed perpetrators to avoid accountability. Additionally, police were empowered to impose administrative penalties without a formal complaint from survivors, and administrative arrest for violating protection orders was increased to 10 days. However, domestic violence remains a widespread and underreported issue and is still not classified as a standalone criminal offense.
At the end of 2023, new rules on classifying information as “official information” came into force, allowing authorities to restrict access to almost any data. For example, the government has not disclosed for years which private media outlets receive funding under its information policy. Meanwhile, a new draft law on access to information has been criticized as insufficient to address this trend. In January 2024, six private media outlets, victims of cyberattacks, filed a joint complaint with the National Security Committee, but the committee declined to investigate, citing the exclusion of media systems from the list of critical infrastructure.
Prospects for Improvement in the Near Future
• Kazakhstan must adhere to its international human rights obligations, particularly by ensuring free and fair elections, guaranteeing the impartiality and independence of election commissions, and protecting voters from undue pressure during election campaigns.
• Crimes classified as “extremist” should be excluded from automatic inclusion in the Financing Terrorism List, and financial restrictions on those convicted of non-violent “extremist” or “terrorist” activities should be lifted. Provisions on extremism and terrorism in the Criminal Code should be revised to ensure legal precision and to protect the legitimate exercise of freedoms of speech, expression, and association.
• Concrete measures should be implemented to adopt comprehensive legislation criminalizing all forms of gender-based violence, including domestic violence. This includes systematically investigating and prosecuting reported cases, expanding victim support services, providing shelters, and strengthening public awareness and education on these issues.
Recommendations for the Foundation
1. Facilitate meetings between the EU and local NGOs to enhance the effectiveness of existing and future programs and avoid duplication of efforts.
2. Support journalists and content creators in building their capacity to safely produce and distribute quality content and participate in cross-border collaborative projects.
3. Work with international partners, including human rights organizations, foreign governments, and multilateral institutions, to exert pressure on Kazakhstan’s government to comply with international human rights standards.
4. Organize training programs for activists and local communities to empower them to advocate for and protect human rights more effectively.